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Native American languages

(Redirected from Native American language)

Native American languages are the indigenous languages of the Americas, spoken by Native Americans from Alaska and Greenland to the southern tip of South America. The Native American languages consist of dozens of distinct language families as well as many language isolates. Many proposals to group these into higher-level families have been made by some linguists, but several of these have not been generally accepted.

Table of contents

Background

Archeological and DNA evidence suggests that the Americas were peopled by migrants from Siberia about 17,000–10,000 years ago. From Alaska, the descendants of those first migrants went on to people the rest of North and South America. The language or languages spoken by these early migrants, and the process by which the current diversity of Native American languages emerged, are a matter of speculation. Some evidence suggests that the ancestors of the Na-Dene and Eskimo-Aleut speakers arrived separately from Siberia some time after the earliest settlers.

Several Native American languages have developed their own writing systems, including the Mayan languages and Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs. These and many other Native American languages later adapted the Roman alphabet or Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics. Aleut was first written by missionaries the Cyrillic Alphabet, and later in the Roman alphabet.

Subsequent to the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas in 1492, Spanish, English, Portuguese, French, and Dutch were brought to the Americas by European settlers and administrators, and constitute the official languages of the independent states of the Americas, although Bolivia, Paraguay and Peru have one or more Native American languages as an official language in addition to Spanish. Several indigenous creole languages developed in the Americas from European languages.

The attitudes of the most of the European colonizers and their successor states toward Native American languages ranged from benign neglect to active suppression.

However, the Spanish missionaries preached to the natives in local languages. They actually spread Quechua beyond its original geographic area. Native American languages vary greatly in the number of speakers, from Quechua, Aymara, Guarani, and Nahuatl with millions of active speakers to a number of languages with only a handful of elderly speakers. Many Native American languages are endangered, and many others are extinct, with no living native speakers.

Language families & isolates by region

South America

Families (south)

  1. Alacalufan languages (2)
  2. Arauan languages (8)
  3. Araucanian languages (2)
  4. Arawakan languages (South America & Caribbean) (60)
  5. Arutani-Sape languages (2)
  6. Aymaran languages (incl. Aymara language) (3)
  7. Barbacoan languages (7)
  8. Cahuapanan languages (2)
  9. Carib languages (29)
  10. Chapacura-Wanham languages (3–4)
  11. Chibchan languages (Central America & South America) (22)
  12. Choco languages (10)
  13. Chon languages (2)
  14. Harakmbet languages (2)
  15. Jivaroan languages (4)
  16. Katukinan languages (3)
  17. Lule-Vilela languages (1)
  18. Macro-Ge languages (32)
  19. Maku languages (6)
  20. Mascoian languages (5)
  21. Mataco-Guaicuru languages (11)
  22. Mosetenan languages (1)
  23. Mura languages (1)
  24. Nambiquaran languages (5)
  25. Paezan languages (1)
  26. Panoan languages (30)
  27. Peba-Yaguan languages (2)
  28. Quechuan languages (including Quechua) (46)
  29. Salivan languages (2)
  30. Tacanan languages (6)
  31. Tucanoan languages (25)
  32. Tupi languages (70)
  33. Uru-Chipaya languages (2)
  34. Witotoan languages (6)
  35. Yanomam languages (4)
  36. Zamucoan languages (2)
  37. Zaparoan languages (7)

Isolates or unclassified (south)

  1. Aikaná (Brazil: Rondônia)
  2. Andoque language (Colombia, Peru)
  3. Baenan (Brazil)
  4. Betoi (Columbia)
  5. Camsá language (Colombia)
  6. Canichana (Bolivia)
  7. Cayubaba language (Bolivia)
  8. Cofán (Colombia, Ecuador)
  9. Culle (Peru)
  10. Gamela (Brazil: Maranhão)
  11. Gorgotoqui (Bolivia)
  12. Huamoé (Brazil: Pernambuco)
  13. Irantxe (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
  14. Itonama language (Bolivia)
  15. Jotí (Venezuela)
  16. Karirí (Brazil: Paraíba, Pernambuco, Ceará)
  17. Koayá (Brazil: Rondônia)
  18. Kukurá (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
  19. Mapudungu (Chile, Argentina)
  20. Movima (Bolivia)
  21. Munichi (Peru)
  22. Nambiquaran (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
  23. Natú (Brazil: Pernambuco)
  24. Omurano (Peru)
  25. Otí (Brazil: São Paulo)
  26. Pankararú language (Brazil: Pernambuco)
  27. Puquina (Bolivia)
  28. Sabela (Ecuador, Peru)
  29. Tarairiú (Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte)
  30. Taushiro (Peru)
  31. Tequiraca (Peru)
  32. Ticuna (a.k.a. Magta, Tikuna, Tucuna, Tukna, or Tukuna) (Colombia, Peru, Brazil)
  33. Tuxá language (Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco)
  34. Warao language (Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela)
  35. Xokó (Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco)
  36. Xukurú (Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraíba)
  37. Yámana (a.k.a Yagan or Yaghan) (Chile)
  38. Yuracare language (Bolivia)
  39. Yuri (Colombia, Brazil)
  40. Yurumanguí (Colombia)

Central America & Mexico

(Central America here includes countries from Mexico to Panama)

Families (central)

  1. Algic languages (North America & Central America) (29)
  2. Chibchan languages (Central America & South America) (22)
  3. Comecrudan languages (North America & Central America) (3)
  4. Guacurian languages (a.k.a. Waikurian) (8)
  5. Jicaquean languages
  6. Lencan languages
  7. Mayan languages (31)
  8. Misumalpan languages
  9. Mixe-Zoquean languages (19)
  10. Na-Dené languages (North America & Central America) (40)
  11. Oto-Manguean languages (North America & Central America) (27)
  12. Tequistlatecan languages (3)
  13. Totonacan languages (2)
  14. Uto-Aztecan languages (North America & Central America) (31)
  15. Xincan languages
  16. Yuman-Cochimi languages (North America & Central America) (11)

Isolates or unclassified (central)

  1. Alagüilac (Guatemala)
  2. Coahuilteco (US: Texas; northeast Mexico)
  3. Cotoname (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
  4. Cuitlatec (Mexico: Guerrero)
  5. Huave (Mexico: Oaxaca)
  6. Maratino (northeastern Mexico)
  7. Naolan (Mexico: Tamaulipas)
  8. Quinigua (northeast Mexico)
  9. Seri (Mexico: Sonora)
  10. Solano (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
  11. Tarascan (a.k.a. Purépecha) (Mexico: Michoacán)

Canada & U.S.

(includes Canada and the USA)

Families (north)

  1. Algic languages (incl. Algonquian languages) (29)
  2. Alsean languages (2)
  3. Caddoan languages (5)
  4. Chimakuan languages (2)
  5. Chinookan languages (3)
  6. Chumashan languages (6)
  7. Comecrudan languages (North America & Central America) (3)
  8. Coosan languages (2)
  9. Eskimo-Aleut languages (7)
  10. Guacurian languages (a.k.a. Waikurian) (8)
  11. Iroquoian languages (11)
  12. Kalapuyan languages (3)
  13. Kiowa-Tanoan languages (7)
  14. Maiduan languages (4)
  15. Mayan languages (North America & Central America) (31)
  16. Muskogean languages (6)
  17. Na-Dené languages (North America & Central America) (40)
  18. Oto-Manguean languages (North America & Central America) (27)
  19. Palaihnihan languages (2)
  20. Plateau Penutian (a.k.a. Shahapwailutan) (4)
  21. Pomoan languages (7)
  22. Salishan languages (23)
  23. Shastan languages (4)
  24. Siouan languages (16)
  25. Tequistlatecan languages (3)
  26. Totonacan languages (2)
  27. Tsimshianic languages (2)
  28. Utian languages (12)
  29. Uto-Aztecan languages (31)
  30. Wakashan languages (6)
  31. Wintuan languages (4)
  32. Yokutsan languages (3)
  33. Yukian languages (2)
  34. Yuman-Cochimi languages (11)

Hokan and Penutian are two macro-families that are currently undemonstrated.

Isolates or unclassified (north)

  1. Adai (US: Louisiana, Texas)
  2. Aranama-Tamique (US: Texas)
  3. Atakapa (US: Louisiana, Texas)
  4. Beothuk (Canada: Newfoundland)
  5. Calusa (US: Florida)
  6. Cayuse (US: Oregon, Washington)
  7. Chimariko (US: California)
  8. Chitimacha (US: Lousiania)
  9. Coahuilteco (US: Texas; northeast Mexico)
  10. Cotoname (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
  11. Esselen (US: California)
  12. Haida (Canada: British Columbia; US: Alaska)
  13. Karankawa (US: Texas)
  14. Karok (a.k.a. Karuk) (US: California)
  15. Keres (US: New Mexico)
  16. Konomihu (US: California)
  17. Kootenai (Canada: British Columbia; US: Idaho, Montana)
  18. Natchez (US: Mississippi, Louisiana)
  19. Salinan (US: California)
  20. Siuslaw (US: Oregon)
  21. Solano (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
  22. Takelma (US: Oregon)
  23. Timucua (US: Florida, Georgia)
  24. Tonkawa (US: Texas)
  25. Tunica (US: Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas)
  26. Washo (US: California, Nevada)
  27. Yana (US: California)
  28. Yuchi (US: Georgia, Oklahoma)
  29. Zuni (a.k.a. Shiwi) (US: New Mexico)

Pidgins, mixed languages, & trade languages

  1. Labrador Eskimo Pidgin (a.k.a. Labrador Inuit Pidgin)
  2. Hudson Strait Pidgin
  3. Greenlandic Eskimo Pidgin
  4. Eskimo Trade Jargon (a.k.a. Herschel Island Eskimo Pidgin, Ship's Jargon)
  5. Mednyj Aleut (a.k.a. Copper Island Aleut, Medniy Aleut, CIA)
  6. Haida Jargon
  7. Chinook Jargon
  8. Nootka Jargon
  9. Broken Slavey (a.k.a. Slavey Jargon, Broken Slavé)
  10. Kutenai Jargon
  11. Loucheux Jargon (a.k.a. Jargon Loucheux)
  12. Inuktitut-English Pidgin
  13. Michif (a.k.a. French Cree, Métis, Metchif, Mitchif, Métchif)
  14. Broken Oghibbeway (a.k.a. Broken Ojibwa)
  15. Basque-Algonquian Pidgin (a.k.a. Micmac-Basque Pidgin, Souriquois)
  16. Montagnais Pidgin Basque (a.k.a. Pidgin Basque-Montagnais)
  17. American Indian Pidgin English
  18. Delaware Jargon (a.k.a. Pidgin Delaware)
  19. Pidgin Massachusett
  20. Jargonized Powhatan
  21. Ocaneechi
  22. Lingua Franca Creek
  23. Lingua Franca Apalachee
  24. Mobilian Jargon (a.k.a. Mobilian Trade Jargon, Chickasaw-Chocaw Trade Language, Yamá
  25. Güegüence-Nicarao
  26. Carib Pidgin (a.k.a. Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin, Ndjuka-Trio)
  27. Carib Pidgin-Arawak Mixed Language
  28. Guajiro-Spanish
  29. Media Lengua
  30. Catalangu
  31. Callahuaya (a.k.a. Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya)
  32. Nheengatú (a.k.a. Lingua Geral Amazônica, Lingua Boa, Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte)
  33. Lingua Geral do Sul (a.k.a. Lingua Geral Paulista, Tupí Austral)

Linguistic areas

The languages of the Americas often can be grouped together into linguistic areas or Sprachbunds (also known as convergence areas). The linguistic areas identified so far deserve more research to determine their validity, and also to help differentiate between shared areal traits and true genetic relationship. The following tentative list of linguistic areas is based on primarily Campbell (1997):

Links


Previous classifications can be seen here: Native American languages/Previous classifications.

See also: Language families and languages, Classification of Native Americans, Native American.

Bibilography

  • Boas, Franz. (1911). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
  • Boas, Franz. (1922). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
  • Boas, Franz. (1929). Classification of American Indian languages. Language, 5, 1–7.
  • Boas, Franz. (1933). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin.
  • Bright, William. (1973). North American Indian language contact. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (part 1, pp. 713–726). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton.
  • Bright, William. (1984). The classification of North American and Meso-American Indian languages. In W. Bright (Ed.), American Indian linguistics and literature (pp. 3–29). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
  • Bright, William (Ed.). (1984). American Indian linguistics and literature. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3–1100–9846–6.
  • Brinton, Daniel G. (1891). The American race. New York: D. C. Hodges.
  • Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0–19–509427–1.
  • Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  • Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0–1604–8774–9.
  • Goddard, Ives. (1999). Native languages and language families of North America (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institute). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). ISBN 0–8032–9271–6.
  • Grimes, Barbara F. (Ed.). (2000). Ethnologue: Languages of the world, (14th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1–55671106–9. (Online edition: http://www.ethnologue.com/).
  • Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0–2927–0414–3.
  • Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (Eds.), Atlas of the world's languages (pp. 46–76). London: Routledge.
  • Mason, J. Alden. (1950). The languages of South America. In J. Steward (Ed.), Handbook of South American Indians (Vol. 6, pp. 157–317). Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 143). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
  • Migliazza, Ernest C.; & Campbell, Lyle. (1988). Panorama general de las lenguas indígenas en América. Historia general de América (Vol. 10). Caracas: Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia.
  • Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0–521–23228–7 (hbk); ISBN 0–521–29875-X.
  • Powell, John W. (1891). Seventh annual report, Bureau of American Ethnology (pp. 1–142). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. (Reprinted in P. Holder (Ed.), 1966, Introduction to Handbook of American Indian languages by Franz Boas and Indian linguistic families of America, north of Mexico, by J. W. Powell, Lincoln: University of Nebraska).
  • Powell, John W. (1915). Linguistic families of American Indians north of Mexico by J. W. Powell, revised by members of the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology. (Map). Bureau of American Ethnology miscellaneous publication (No. 11). Baltimore: Hoen.
  • Rowe, John H. (1954). Linguistics classification problems in South America. In M. B. Emeneau (Ed.), Papers from the symposium on American Indian linguistics (pp. 10–26). University of California publications in linguistics (Vol. 10). Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Sapir, Edward. (1929). Central and North American languages. In The encyclopædia britannica: A new survey of universal knowledge (14 ed.) (Vol. 5, pp. 138–141). London: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company, Ltd.
  • Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1973). Linguistics in North America (parts 1 & 2). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted as Sebeok 1976).
  • Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1976). Native languages of the Americas. New York: Plenum.
  • Sherzer, Joel. (1973). Areal linguistics in North America. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (part 2, pp. 749–795). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted in Sebeok 1976).
  • Sherzer, Joel. (1976). An areal-typological study of American Indian languages north of Mexico. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
  • Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978-present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published).
  • Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1965). Classification of American Indian languages. Languages of the world, Native American fasc. 2, sec. 1.6). Anthropological Linguistics, 7 (7): 121–150.
  • Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1977). Classification and index of the world's languages. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0–4440–0155–7.







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